Learning Center

Closed Captioned Television: Educational and Sociological Implications for Hearing Impaired Learners

Written in 1981 by Doris C. Caldwell, Special Assistant to the President of the National Captioning Institute (NCI) and former Coordinator of Programming for the Hearing Impaired at PBS, Ms. Caldwell points out that deaf children and adults improve their reading skills and broaden their vocabulary by reading captions. Having closed captions available to this segment of the population enables deaf audiences to experience what their hearing counterparts have enjoyed all along. To quote a letter sent to NCI: "I was thrilled. I have never voted because I could not hear to understand what the candidates were promising. The more NCI close captions, the more I will become interested in politics."

Closed Caption Television: Today and Tomorrow

This article, written in 1980 by Barry Jay Cronin, Ph.D., was prepared for the Symposium on Research and Utilization of Educational Media for Teaching the Deaf. For many years an annual media symposium was held at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. This paper provides a general background on the history of closed captioning and how it has evolved to that point. As Dr. Cronin states, "No technology can remain static and be successful for long." Also explains what Line 21 is, and describes the closed-captioning process.

Nonverbal Films: Guidelines for Their Utilization with Deaf Learners

This article was written in 1980 by Salvatore J. Parlato, Jr., former National Coordinator of the BEH/CEASD Captioned Educational Films Selection Program located at the Rochester School for the Deaf, for the Symposium on Research and Utilization of Education Media for Teaching the Deaf. For many years an annual media symposium was held at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. This paper discusses the transition of Hollywood and educational films from "audio-visual" to "verbal-visual," meaning that where words were once only supplements to a film, they now dominate. Covers some of the factors taken into consideration when analyzing nonverbal films for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing, such as subject matter, grade level, and production technique. Includes references, a bibliography, and two charts.

Media Services and Captioned Films

Written in the early '70s by Dr. Malcolm J. Norwood, this article reviews the restructuring made within the program. Discusses the first demonstration of closed captioning.

Presentation Speed and Vocabulary in Closed Captioned Television

Written by Dr. Carl Jensema and Ralph McCann in 1995, this paper addresses concerns regarding broadcast captioning, such as whether programs are captioned verbatim, how much editing is done, and what the presentation rate is. One hundred eighty-three prerecorded programs were selected for research. Includes tables that show the original script, words removed, words added, and the final captioned script of various programs. Also includes a list of the most frequently used words, with percentages, from the combination of the television programs used.

Captioning Quality Code of Practice

From the Deafness Forum of Australia Web site. Although this captioning manual grants permission to use American- and British-style captioning with like programs, Australian programs are required to follow Australian captioning guidelines. Covers basic issues of captioning, such as editing, presentation speed, and punctuation. Notes the use of "colour" to identify speakers and sound effects. Also addresses error rates and live captioning.

Deaf Consumers' Views About Captioning

A study conducted by Carol J. LaSasso and Cynthia M. King in July of 1994. Presented in question/answer format. States that "it is important that deaf people have early input into decisions made by television manufactures and caption providers to ensure that captions meet the needs of the primary group for which they were developed." Addresses the desire of persons who are deaf and hard of hearing to have the option of placing captions anywhere on the screen, as well as being able to choose from a variety of colors for the captions. Includes comments from deaf and hard of hearing participants.

Television Captions for Hearing-impaired People: A Study of Key Factors That Affect Reading Performance

This article, written in 1996 by Frank Thorn and Sondra Thorn, addresses the concern that some viewers are not receiving the benefits of captioning because the captions are too small or too fast for them to read. The authors designed a series of experiments to test this theory, focusing on (1) optical blur, (2) presentation speed, and (3) the acquisition of English as a first or second language. (Observers received eye exams before taking part in the study.) The results revealed that "both blur and fast presentation rate dramatically reduced reading accuracy," and those with English as a first language performed better than those who have English as a second language. Suggests simultaneous captioning as a solution to these problems.

Caption Features for Indicating Non-speech Information: Research Toward Standardization

Project funded in 1996 by the U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs and Gallaudet University. Studies the variations in captioning conventions for conveying non-speech information (NSI). NSI includes: identification of speaker, sound effects, music, manner of speaking, audience reaction, and indication of a title (book, film, newspaper, play, etc.). A total of 189 deaf and hard of hearing consumers in the study confirmed the importance of consistent presentation of this information. One implication that pertains to presentation rate is that while NSI is crucial in conveying information about plot, humor, mood, or meaning of a spoken passage, it does add more written language for the viewer to process. Pictures of the captioned clips used in the study are included.

Non-Speech Information in Captioned Video: A Consumer Opinion Study

Prepared in 1995 by Judith E. Harkins, Ph.D; Ellie Korres; Beth Singer, M.S., CCC-A; and Barbara M. Virvan, M.S.W., with funding provided by the U.S. Department of Education and Gallaudet University. "In television programs and movies, not all information is conveyed through dialogue." That is what is at the heart of this paper: the importance of identifying sound effects, including music, mood, and an explanation of puns, to provide an inclusive and comprehensive viewing experience for persons who are deaf and hard of hearing. Includes findings and recommendations. Appendices include a questionnaire on the awareness of features and another on the demographic characteristics of the sample; a list of companies and organizations that responded to the draft guidelines; and a list of the advisors, consultants, and staff who participated in this study.

Television Literacy: Comprehension of Program Content Using Closed Captions for the Deaf

Elementary school deaf students were selected as participants in this 1998 study by Margaret S. Jelinek Lewis and Dorothy W. Jackson. They found that the time constraint of captions further compounded the literacy problem for deaf readers as captions move quickly off the screen. Deaf readers also exhibited a lack of fluent word reading, which adversely affects comprehension; word-reading fluency depended on the ability to recognize (effortlessly and automatically) letters, spelling patterns, and whole words. In addition, students who viewed captions at a slower pace of 78 wpm retained significantly more information than students who viewed captions at an average rate of 116 wpm.

Advanced Television Closed Captioning Research Report

This 1998 report, prepared by the National Center for Accessible Data (NCAD) and the WGBH Research Department, discusses Advanced Television (ATV), a product which would allow the utilization of captioning features, such as flexibility of caption placement, color choices, and controlled reading rates. Fonts chosen for this study include: Helvetica, Times, and Monaco, with Helvetica being the clear choice of participants. Also includes reactions to the mix of an upper- and lowercase character format as opposed to all caps, and presents feedback on the two types of character spacing: mono and proportional. Photos of television clips that show various captioning styles are included, although difficult to read. Lots of participant feedback.

Closed Captioned Prompt Rates: Their Influence on Reading Outcomes

This paper, written in 1995 by Martha J. Meyer and Yung-bin Benjamin Lee, examines a study in which 140 reading-deficient students (from fourth, fifth, and sixth grades) were randomly assigned each to either: (a) an average-paced closed-captioned video, (b) a slow-paced closed-captioned video, or (c) printed text with no video. Results indicated significantly more learning occurs for those students using captioned video as compared to those utilizing only traditional print materials. Additionally, students assigned to the slow-paced prompt rate retained significantly more information than those viewing the average-paced captioning. (Causing them to conclude that prompt rates should be designed so that children with various reading speeds have enough time to read and process the information.)

A Study of the Eye Movement Strategies Used in Viewing Captioned Television

Captions and Reading Rates of Hearing Impaired Students

This 1980 paper, written by Edgar Shroyer and Jack Birch, examines the results of a study in which 185 randomly selected hearing-impaired students from residential schools participated. Indicates that normal extempore speech is measured at 159 words per minute (wpm), and that speech and language on television and films approximates this rate. Finds that if speech on television/films is synchronized in content and speed with captions, approximately 84 percent (%) of hearing-impaired students are not able to read it. (That is, 84% of the students in the study possess reading rates below the 159 wpm of extempore speech.) Notes that other research indicates that the linguistic level of captions would further significantly compounded students' reading rate difficulties. Also finds that the mean wpm reading rate of primary students in their study is 123.7.